Jazz Music between World Wars Essay

The jazz craze in music during the 1920s reflected a general spirit of the times for many commentators like Seldes that this decade became known as the Jazz Age. Following World War I, jazz music certainly captured the popular imagination. The rapid popularity of jazz music led to its equally rapid spread among musicians. No other style up to this time in American popular music so quickly came to dominate popular performance. The American vernacular, which had already made significant inroads into the commercial popular music market, had captured popular tastes at an unprecedented level, seemingly sweeping aside the old â€Å"standards. † And just as ragtime and syncopated dance music became part of earlier commercial popular music, the dominance of jazz in the 1920s also represented a major triumph of the black vernacular in American popular music. The jazz craze began through the influence of non-professional musicians. While still marginal to most legitimate venues, non-professional musicians performing the jazz vernacular were attracting audiences to clubs, theaters, restaurants, and were popular in the speakeasies of the 1920s. They also had opportunities for their music to reach a broader audience in a booming record market following World War I. Professional musicians, however, quickly adopted jazz music in their orchestras and smaller bands. They co-opted the jazz fever while simultaneously distancing themselves from non-professionals. (Charters, 39-43) By occupying the most lucrative jobs in theaters, dance halls, hotels, and other venues, professional musicians positioned themselves as the premier interpreters of this new vernacular idiom in commercial popular music. The common defense of jazz as good music during the Jazz Age embraced the professional musicians and professional composers who performed and created jazz music, not the non-professional musicians who first introduced it. In adopting jazz idioms, professional musicians were simply continuing the process of cultivating the American vernacular. Black professional musicians were already adopting black vernacular idioms in their music making in earlier syncopated society orchestras and simply adopted jazz idioms as well as the name in their â€Å"jazz† orchestras. (Bushell, 72-75) White professional musicians had performed rags as part of their repertoire in the past, but with the jazz craze, many were quick to adopt syncopated dance and jazz practices in some form as the defining style of their profession. White professional musicians also quickly followed black professional musicians in transforming their bands into jazz orchestras, and just as quickly claimed to be the modern proponents of this new American popular music. Black and white professional jazz orchestras in the 1920s established the basic instrumentation, arrangement, and techniques of the big band dance orchestras that dominated American popular music until the 1950s. In the 1920s, an emerging new ideal of good music involved a balancing of the previous cultivated practices and cultivated music of professional musicians with popular vernacular idioms. The proper balance, however, was hotly debated. Professional musicians would constantly distance themselves from the pure vernacular of non-professional musicians. In defending their balance of the cultivated and the vernacular in popular performance, popular tastes, however, were demanding jazz music and a professional musician would be remiss to ignore his patrons in the popular music market as much as stodgy critics and some professional musicians would rail against the pernicious influence of jazz. Professional musicians in mediating the popular music market had to continue to navigate the moral, aesthetic, class, and racial construction of good music in America. While popular tastes in musical entertainment promoted the black vernacular in commercial popular music, the plight of the African American community in the United States continued to be dire. Some leaders in the black community had hoped that African Americans’ participation during World War I in both the military and in industry, and the Great Migration out of the Jim Crow South, would change their fortunes as segregated and oppressed second class citizens. The post-war years, however, dashed most hopes of any immediate positive change. (DeVeaux, 6-29) Race relations went in the opposite direction. Race riots sprung up across the nation while lynching continued to be a regular occurrence. Efforts continued to secure the legal segregation of black communities, and the labor movement continued to exclude blacks. The Ku Klux Klan reached its peak membership and popularity during the 1920s. The segregation and denigration of the black community was also reflected in the social organization of American music. (Hansen, 493-97) Besides the segregation of audiences and most venues, black professional musicians also remained outside the artistic community of white professional musicians in terms of unions, band organizations, and this community’s vision of a professional class of artist in America. The balance of the cultivated and the vernacular among professional musicians also continued to run against elitist conceptions of popular music and popular musicians as less legitimate than the music, musicians, and composers of the European cultivated tradition of classical and opera music. Black professional musicians also continued to strive to break through the barriers erected against them in the world of European cultivated music. This continuing tension in the implied lower status of professional musicians who performed American popular music erupted during the Jazz Age into an open rebellion against the European cultivated tradition. Professional musicians in jazz orchestras attempted to counter the singular role claimed by the European cultivated tradition. These musicians asserted that jazz was a true American or African American school of fine art music in contrast to cultivated European music – a populist appeal for high art legitimacy. This high art turn in American popular music, however, ultimately failed when the depression wreaked havoc on the popular music market. With the introduction of a new popular music market of live performances, records, broadcasts, and films, the quest for legitimacy among professional popular musicians would have to take another route. It was a period where professional popular musicians in adopting the jazz vernacular went against the reigning cultural hierarchy in America. (Peretti, 234-40) The period following World War I was a crucial turning point in American popular music. The American vernacular in general was storming the ramparts of the old edifice of good music as Tin Pan Alley song and dance dominated popular performance. Both professional and nonprofessional musicians also were benefiting from more affluent times and the growing importance of entertainment in the lives of most urban Americans. To the chagrin of elite and moral defenders of nineteenth century cultural idealism, most urban Americans were readily joining a Cultural Revolution in commercial popular entertainment. And at the center of this revolution was the national craze for jazz music and jazz dance. The jazz craze made syncopated rhythms and other black vernacular idioms central elements of American popular music making. While many small jazz bands performed a black vernacular style of music from the Delta Region of New Orleans, jazz music in the 1920s encompassed not only this style but syncopated dance music, blues music, piano rags, and virtually any tune jazzed up by musicians. The jazz craze in essence was the craze for the black vernacular among popular audiences and the performance of this vernacular in some form by popular musicians and popular singers both professional and non-professional. The extent to which musicians and singers actually adopted the black vernacular rather than a superficial imitation – critique later jazz critics would make of certain sweet jazz during the 1920s – is less important than the fact that jazz entered the consciousness of the nation and musicians as the reigning popular music. The word Jazz seems to have found a permanent place in the vocabulary of popular music. It was used originally as an adjective describing a band that in playing for dancing were so infected with their own rhythm that they themselves executed as much, if not more, contortions than the dancers. The popularity of the raggy music has created a demand for music with exaggerated syncopation, an attempt as it were to produce the wonderful broken rhythms of the primitive African jungle orchestra. The jazz craze also coincided with the growth of black entertainment. During the 1920s, black entertainment districts like the South Side in Chicago and Harlem in New York City witnessed a major boom. Besides entertaining the large black populations of The Great Migration, black musicians and singers were entertaining white audiences who went uptown for their entertainment. The boom in the 1920s in black entertainment, as Kenny (1993, 89-92) and Shaw (1987, 122-30) show, was driven by the demand for the black vernacular. In musical theater, musical revues, vaudeville, dance, and speakeasies, the black vernacular and black artists were in demand. This demand was met not only in black entertainment districts, but also outside these districts as black artists performed for white audiences in musical revues, dance halls, and clubs in white entertainment districts. The popularity of the black vernacular also increased when record producers discovered a race market in black music. Most members of the New England School of cultivated music like Mason, and other defenders of the old ideal of good music, were stridently against the influence of jazz in both popular music and classical music. Repeating the moral, aesthetic, class, and racial epithets used to condemn the popularization of vernacular jazz, the guardians of the old ideal ridiculed any idea of jazz meriting the status of high art or even having an influence on serious music composition and performance. As David Stanley Smith, Professor of Music at Yale University, argued in The Musician of August 1926, jazz music’s â€Å"monotonous rhythm, as unvaried as the chug-chug of a steam engine, enslaves its practitioners within a formula, and induces in composer, performer, and listener a stupor of mind and emotion. † On the other hand, many of those individuals who embraced â€Å"modernism† in cultivated music were sympathetic to jazz music. These modernists emphasized jazz as the legitimate expression of the times and a nation. (Stewart, 102-109) The debate within the cultivated tradition between old idealists and modernists on the influence of jazz revolved mainly around the influence of popular jazz on serious music composition and performance. That the question would be posed in such a manner spoke to how, by the 1920s, the European cultivated tradition had organizationally and ideologically broken from the world of commercial popular music. Crossover between popular music and cultivated music occurred during the 1920s, but organizational and ideological barriers left little chance that jazz musicians would transform the cultivated tradition. The very formation of a separate world of cultivated music in the United States was predicated on its distinction from commercial popular music, popular musicians, and popular tastes – a distinction further exacerbated by jazz music being an expression of the black vernacular. The influence of jazz within the cultivated tradition, however, was debated during the 1920s as professional musicians laid claim to a truly American art form and modernists promoted the incorporation of jazz in serious music composition and performance. (Badger, 48-67) Traditionalists, of course, had reason to be optimistic as the economic depression following the 1929 stock market crash wreaked havoc on the commercial market of popular jazz music. Defenders of the European cultivated tradition also had reason to celebrate as the confident proclamations of professional musicians on jazz as America’s first authentic art receded to the background as these musicians adjusted to changed economic circumstances and a new popular music market. Professional musicians’ struggle for legitimacy during the Jazz Age, however, laid the ideological and musical foundation upon which the next generation of professional musicians would construct a modern jazz paradigm. In their quest for legitimacy as professional artists, they were the first popular artists to attempt to transform the moral, aesthetic, class, and racial constructions of the old ideal of good music in America. While their efforts contained their own complicity in manners of distinction, the contradictions of an elite populism embedded in a racist culture, they did struggle to create an alternative understanding of art and society in America. As the self-appointed mediators of the American vernacular, professional musicians and composers ardently worked to construct an alternative form of good music to that of the European cultivated music tradition – a music reflecting in some fashion the world of popular audiences and popular tastes. ( DeVeaux, 525-40) In this process of syncretism, the reinvention and reinterpretation of musical idioms and practices, these artists created the American big band dance orchestra and the Tin Pan Alley song that dominated American popular music until the middle of the twentieth century. While jazz did not become a universally recognized American high art form during the Jazz Age, professional musicians and composers transformed it into legitimate popular art music, although at the expense of those non-professional vernacular musicians who did not assimilate into their profession. The need for professional musicians to legitimate popular dance orchestras disappeared after the 1920s, and the old ideal of good music no longer occupied this professional class of musician. (Gioia, 213-20) The emergence of an alternative ideal of good music among professional musicians signaled a final separation between popular music making and the cultivated tradition in American music. This break was both ideological and practical; a reflection of both a new professional ethos among professional musicians and the culmination of the division in the social organization of American music between the world of popular music and the world of European cultivated music. (Lopes, 25-36) The previous crisscrossing professionally between the cultivated tradition and popular music making was no longer part of this profession. The future big band leaders and musicians of the Swing Era began their professional careers not in symphonies, but in the small jazz ensembles and jazz orchestras of the Jazz Age. The fate of jazz was seemed threatened by the power over popular music of a new mass media industry of broadcasts, recordings, and film. Just when the fortunes of jazz seemed dead and buried, however, the swing craze reignited popular interest in the cultivated jazz vernacular. (Hennessey, 156-60) The promotion of sweet music and the subsequent swing craze, however, set in motion a new distinction within the profession of musician. No longer than singularly obsessed with the world of European cultivated music, professional musicians who assimilated the black jazz vernacular now viewed sweet music as their more direct nemesis. The race and class boundaries articulated in the old ideal of good music were now articulated more directly for professional musicians in the distinction between the popular music cultures of sweet and swing.

Back in the closet

The main point of this essay is that even though free speech protects a lot of things it doesn’t protect every kind of â€Å"free† speech because there are boundaries when one is forced to look instead of given the choice to look or not. The author’s purpose in writing it is to show that she is in agreement with most of the foundational aspects of the American Constitution but that she, in a very patriotic way or even a humanist way does not believe that pornography should be protected by free speech.Her attitude is challenging to precisely pin down because she seems so loyal to what the supreme court ultimately decides. While it’s reasonable to believe that she favors making the distinction that pornography should not be protected because it expounds on a hatred of women and is too prevalent to be simply ignored, she leaves it to the courts to decide in the end. So we can say that she has the status of an invested concern that aims towards a neutral attem pt that allows for the judicial process to do its work.Some of her most provocative and supporting details are when she clearly outlines a difference in what was being protected by the free speech amendment. It shifts from the political to the violent, from political statements to personal biases and intense hatreds. While political statements can be very biased and members may share intense hatreds this often is not as explicit and in your face as pornography.A major component of pornography’s offensiveness lies in the growth of technology and how easy it is for people to make, distribute, and popularize things called pornography that used to be mostly hidden and not really talked about openly or as offensively. In our contemporary society there is so much pornography that one becomes numb to it and in a strange way there seems to be less of it. There are more outright protections against pornography and more public outrage against in your face pornography like Janet Jackson ’s wardrobe malfunction incident.This shows that pornography has become more of a private issue with the measure being less what the courts say and more what the audience of a particular media thinks and makes known. I think this is a definitive step and one can wonder how much court rulings played into how we live in a world full of pornography today but manage to ignore or are simply not confronted by most of what does exist.

A Look at the Different Opinions Concerning Abortion

A Look at the Different Opinions Concerning Abortion Being a subject that is never taken lightly in society, abortion is a wildly controversial issue. With a nation full of many diverse ethics and values, the issue of abortion has been divided into two opposite positions of pro-life or pro-choice. The pro-life stance is in opposition of legal abortion and against the termination of unborn fetuses. Overall, in the eyes of pro-life believers, life is a precious miracle and no matter how far along a fetus has developed, every aborted fetus has indeed been murdered. On the other hand, the stance of pro-choice supports the action of abortion and believes that women should have the legal right to terminate their pregnancy. No matter what position is taken on this crucial issue, abortion will always have lasting impact on people. For example, who can blame anyone who defends a pregnant mothers right to make a life and death decision by her own free will when assuming she completely understands all ramifications? By whatever way she arrives at her final heart- tearing decision to kill the fetus, should anyone have the right to force her to bear a child? Or, in contrast, who can fault someone who wishes to prevent the termination of a teen pregnancy in order to save the life of the innocent unborn child? Questions like these not only help conceive the importance and value of abortion but also raise much curiosity about this year’s election and the candidate’s beliefs. Although many of this years election policies are based on issues that encompass our devastating economy, the often neglected issue of abortion has become a ruthlessly exploited topic in this years presidential debates. The candidates, Governor Mitt Romney and President Barrack Obama, have very differentiating views of pro-life and pro-choice. Usually shown as an issue that favors pro-life candidates, this election has shown a historical change due to President Obama taking charge in a recent Gallup Poll (Dannefelser). Although there are some appealing arguments about the pro-life choice, I believe the policy of abortion should be terminated in our society, as it takes the lives of approximately 115,000 innocent and defenseless children daily. Of course, there is a population that doesn’t believe that the act of abortion is wrong and feels that women should have the right in whether they want to bear a child. Supporting this view, President Obama believes in the policy of pro-choice and holds the opinion that woman should bear the constitutional rights to their personal health and reproductive freedom. Within his campaign, Obama has shown his complete support of Planned Parenthood and given much funding to abortion and contraception advertising through his recent video known as â€Å"Yes We Can† (Yarrow). Through this tactic, Obama establishes the message that the women of America are capable of making their own choices. Disagreeing with parental notification, he states that he feels that abortion is an act that needs to have much thought and consideration and if â€Å"a young women becomes pregnant they should talk to their parents†. Moreover, he realizes that all girls do not have parental guidance a nd â€Å"in those instances, we should want these girls to seek the advice of a trusted source. Many feel this campaign tactic will be helpful in gathering support for abortion because â€Å"according to NARAL’s model and an extensive survey that shows there are over 5.1 million women pro-choice†(May). Claiming how Governor Romney â€Å"has gone to more extreme place†, by completely getting rid of funding for planned parenthood, President Obama claims that if he gets elected for a second term this crucial social issue will get resolved (May). Although President Obama makes some crucial arguments about this serious policy, there have been criticisms’ about his policy of abortion. President Obama constantly mentioned the topic of federal funding of planned parenthood numerous times and consistently made sure to bring up Romney’s vow to defund the nation’s largest abortion provider that also delivers an array of other productive services (Yarrow). Furthermore, Obama states in all three of his presidential debates that not only does his funding of planned parenthood help women in need, but it also can act like any other health care provider or OB/GYN by providing breast examinations and referring women to outside technicians (Viebeck). In reality though, Obama has recently been proven wrong, though, due to a recent fact check that verified that Planned Parenthood does not perform mammograms or even possess the necessary equipment to do so. The truth is actually revealed; â€Å"they do hundreds and thousa nds of abortions and not a single mammogram†(Dannenfeiser). According to the Washington Times â€Å"Planned Parenthood is even reportedly dropping what little prenatal care it offers† (Dannenfeiser). Moreover, the Congressional Research Service report stated that the federal government gives Planned Parenthood about $66 million to a unreliable service (Viebeck). In general, this shows the amount of money that is being taken out of the American’s pockets (Viebeck). Furthermore, pro-life candidate Mitt Romney claims that his opposing candidate, Barack Obama, needs to critically consider that abortion is a social issue and not an economical issue (Dannenfeiser). In general, Romney feels the most important thing should be fully trying to recover America from economic stress and this current devastating recession. Now completely behind the policy of pro-life, Romney’s policy of abortion has three exceptions of â€Å"cases of rape, incest, or pregnancy that endangers a women’s life† (Romney). His belief of pro-life advocates the legal protection of human embryos and fetuses and outlaws abortion. Throughout Romney’s debate he claims his first action he will take will be to defund Planned Parenthood in America. In addition, he he plans to overturn Roe vs. Wade, which states the legalization of abortion, due to over â€Å"fifty million abortions have been performed since 1973†. Through this plan, Romney claims that on ce overturned, abortion will be a matter of state decision and not a matter of federal decision. It will â€Å"finally allow the states to have authority† that they were initially intended to have (Blodget). In addition, Romney indicates that he will reverse the Mexico City position of the President and â€Å"reinstate the Mexico City policy which keeps us from using foreign aid for abortions overseas†(Weiner). Feeling that abortion is more of a social issue and not economic issue he plans to instead help the 17 million women that are currently living in poverty today (Weiner). Romney states I’m going to help women in America get good work by getting a stronger economy and by supporting women in the workforce.(Bennett). In general, much of this topic is subject to opinion and perspective and that is just the nature of this argument. Overall though, I find myself mostly behind Governor Romney and his choice of pro-life within America. Influenced by my morals and religious back ground, I believe that there are no exceptions for abortion. Living in a society that finds murder as a morally wrong act that deserves punishment, I believe the policy of abortion should be ended because I feel that there is no difference between murder and taking the life of an innocent and defenseless child. If a mother does not want a child or rape has occurred, adoption or other measures should be considered. Unfortunately, this is not a popular stance to many Americans due to the belief that woman should possess their constitutional rights. In reality, the act of abortion is legal before three months because the fetus is still in the embryo stage. In contrast, facts show that â€Å"More than 90% of the body structures found in a full-grown human are present after 9 weeks.† Overall I feel that today we live in a morally wrong and depraved society that is unwilling to accept their wrongs. We end up exonerating others for our mistakes. I understand that fear indeed is a powerful motivator, but as we accept these self-centered acts we underestimate both the intelligence and priorities of women. The women of America can use their brains, not solely rely on other parts of their body, to move ahead in society and achieve their goals.

Mergers and Acquisitions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Mergers and Acquisitions - Essay Example Before this governments believed this was a nascent industry that needed its protection. However, over the last three decades the industry has become highly competitive forcing many carriers to operate on thin margins. In fact, four of the six legacy carriers filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy over the last ten years. American Airlines and Continental were the only two that did require bankruptcy protection (Harrison, 2010). US Airways is experiencing aggressive growth which is a consequence of its recent negotiations with other firms within the market. Specifically the Delta Slot Transaction whereby US Airways entered into a mutual asset purchase and sale agreement with Delta (Esterl, 2010). Pursuant to the agreement, US Airways would transfer to Delta certain assets related to flight operations at LaGuardia Airport in New York, consisting of 125 pairs of slots currently used to provide US Airways Express service at LaGuardia. Delta is expected to transfer to US Airways certain assets related to flight operations at Washington National Airport, including 42 pairs of slots, and the authority to serve Sao Paulo, Brazil and Tokyo, Japan. The agreement is structured as asset sales and is anticipated to be cash neutral to US Airways. The net benefit to the transaction is the restructuring of U.S Airways to focus its strategy and meet the growing demand. The agreement must be approved by the U.S.  Department of Justice, the DOT, the FAA and The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. If approved, this transaction will significantly increase US Airways’ capacity in the Washington,  D.C. market and improve profitability(Gibbons, 2007). US Airways is experiencing slow growth coupled with an improving competitive market position. This means that US Airways is going through a phase of concentrated growth. The Frequent Traveler Program is a great method for the company to focus on their local hubs and create loyal consumers in those markets. This will undermine the low transfer cost and incentivize ticket purchasing through their company. This program helps generate a loyal consumer base and helps differentiate between airline services. Focusing on this program is key to brand development for US Airways. The Dividend Miles program credits passengers who fly on US Airways and Star Alliance carriers. Credits can be redeemed for travel on US Airways or other participating partner airlines, whereby US Airways assumes the fee. The incremental cost method is used to account for the portion of frequent traveler program liability related to mileage credits earned by Dividend Miles members. This creates an obligation to provide future travel when credits are redeemed (Gross, 2007). II. Company Strategy The possibility for a merger between US Airways and American Airlines have been stifled twice before, but renewed interest in the merger possibility has been created as a result of economic re-stabilization. But the two companies are currently in me rger talks that would make US Airways the second largest airline. The industry reported a $60 billion dollar loss since 2000 which has spurred interest in consolidation. Even with the dramatic declines in capacity by airlines collectively, in recent years, experts believe that there are too many airlines and a shortage in travelers. A merger could help both increase the earnings per share in a smaller timeframe than either company can accomplish alone. The industry is

Agriculture in the next 30 years Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Agriculture in the next 30 years - Assignment Example For quite a long time, researchers have ranked agriculture as the major source of income globally. In this regard, as the main economic activity and many countries’ economic backbone, speculations have always been made in fear of what might happen the next minute.A renowned scholar, Glen Hiemstra, of futurist.com once noted that any individual who does not emprise technology that comes along with agriculture remain a stumbling block to countries economic progress. In support to Hiemstra words, every individual’s effort towards agriculture helps to boost country’s GDP and per capita income.As an activity drawing scholarly interest, several definitions have been brought forth all inclined towards recognizing agriculture as farming or husbandry, a way of animal cultivation, plants and fungi production as well as production of foods and fiber all geared towards human life sustainability (Rosner, 2009). As a study majorly phrased as agricultural science refers to huma n activities. This paper gives an in-depth analysis of the future expectations of agriculture, drawing argument from past and present happenings. Agricultural activities date back thousands of years and it has developed tremendously due to different climates, cultures, and technology. Being the backbone of human life, agriculture had to be developed continuously to sustain the needs of the people in the world. In confirmation of the importance of the activity in generating income, most of the industries worldwide deal with agricultural product in their operations (Li, Liu, & Chen, 2011). Agriculture is thus a core activity to the world and people cannot live without it. The economy has to grow through the help of agriculture as the main activity. In general, as years go by, the need for foods, feed, fibers, biofuels, and fishing will increase significantly thus the need to develop and diversify agricultural sector. This will greatly be attributed by the desire to feed the constantly growing population, creation of employment activities to the citizens, need for a source of income and due to the fact that it is a source of foreign exchange. As such, every individual expects positive development of agriculture in the future. This is from the understanding of the impact it has to a county’s development. Agriculture is a very costly exercise in terms of cost and involvement, like for instance, buying of pesticides, nutrient runoff, excessive water usage and many more. Furthermore, pesticide poisoning, pollution of environment through chemicals emitted by agricultural activities are the major negative impacts by agriculture. Pollution of water by biofuels emitted from industries causes water scarcity hence increased the challenge of producing enough food for the growing population. Thus, the need to fulfill agricultural needs results to environmental degradation and negative implications on peoples lives in terms of high costs and their health and therefore the need for stern measures to be taken to counter the effects. It is expected therefore that in the future, having in mind the increasing living standards, the cost of all the above-mentioned will increase notably (Hiemstra, 2000). However, other scholars are for the opinion that better and cheaper means of farming might be initiated cutting down much of the expenses and hence bettering and increasing the production. The presently initiated biotechnological products will in the future, if not well handled expose human beings to dangerous infections such as cancer, diabetes, and heart attacks. People infected with such disease may even end up dying or developing lifetime complexities (Mundlak, 2000). The need to feed the growing population has called for swift development in crop production and pest control. In future, it is expected that technological advancements will be developed swiftly to curb food shortage and various pest control techniques. Disease prevalence in crops has ho wever remained constant despite all the

Windows and Macintosh Operating Systems Assignment

Windows and Macintosh Operating Systems - Assignment Example It is a set of manual and automatic procedures that enable a group of people to share a computer installation efficiently (Hansen 1). This program serve as the primary platform where functional software runs. We have heard about DOS and Windows and perhaps are over-familiar with these things. Along these platform categories there belong different types of individual real names for operating systems. Microsoft, Apple, Linux, and other names are similarly popular. Their functions maybe the same but their suitability may differ depending on the preference and convenience of the user. There are several leading names on office network operating systems. Among these names, there are two, which are most commonly used and adopted by different offices and organizations worldwide. The competing leaders of the commercially available operating systems are Microsoft Windows and Macintosh Operating Systems. Considering the latest versions of these products, let us therefore evaluate the performances of Windows Vista from Microsoft and Mc OS X from Macintosh based on the office network requirements. In addition, file handling and other office functionality of the systems must also be evaluated. Finally, let us look at the picture of other user's preferences based on information of what systems other industries are using. Findings File handling and office works capabilities The office primary activities include document creation, filing and browsing. Apple Incorporated through their website with the title "Mac OS X Leopard" and Microsoft's Windows website titled "Windows Vista" both show that their operating systems supports these office functionality with different methods and styles. However, minor cases differ in file handling such as OS X does not allow "cut" in the Finder to move files just as Vista can do. They both support word processing, spreadsheets, presentations, and database programs from other third party sources. Mac has its own Finder similar to Windows Search for easy document files and information searching within the computer, the networks, or the web. The search capability is supported with preview capability to allow seeing the document before opening a means to fast track document search. Windows Vista has file-encrypting capability, which protect file from unauthorized access for computers that are shared by different office workers, and in the networks. Mac OS also supports encrypting within the network. Networking capabilities Networking, whether within office, with other networks, or through the Internet is a major requirement of the current office systems. Software that doesn't support this requirement cannot stand with intense market competitions. Obviously, the Windows and Mac operating systems both should have these capabilities. The question is who has better functionality against the other Browsing the features from the respective official websites of the product we have learned that they have their own unique advantage. Mac OS X supports a

Norbert Elias and the History of Manners Assignment

Norbert Elias and the History of Manners - Assignment Example Elias critically examinees the historical norms that have been put in place over time and how these have been received and implemented in several societies. An example is an issue of spitting in public places. Elias (156) argues that the series quotations or norms that involve the issue of spitting has drastically changed since the middle ages in a particular direction, and in among Europeans considered as being the most unpleasant behavior, and has even been viewed as being unhealthy. The process through which these types of manners have been evolving to be accepted by society as Elias elaborates would constitute a process through which civilization has taken place. As described above, civility according to Calhoun is communicating an attitude of mannerism towards others. Elias critical examines how social issues such as cleanliness, spitting, and others that would constitute mannerism, have evolved to amount to a process through which civilization has evolved in society. Largely, E lias utilizes rhetoric to evaluate how mannerism, has evolved over time to form widely embraced social manners. Elias (159 explains that the inclination to spit or even look at the sputum in children or even in a dream and its corresponding suppression can be viewed in the specific comic that overcomes us when such similar things are spoken in the general public. Elias in this presents the idea of the malleability of psychic life. The use of children is significant of how the society is eager to learn on its way to civilization in a process that would amount to psychological development in the formation of attitudes that would later be embraced as the standards of public order. It is in such a process that civilization would be said to amount to psychological maturity, where the society develops codes of behaviors that come to be understood and embraced as signs of respect towards others, which has been explained as the essence of maturity. The formed trends that involve codes and n orms concerning public behavior or how one should have respect to others as a process to civility then led to the psychology regarding the art of observing people. Elias (104) argues that this psychology cannot be taken in the scientific view, but as the ability that stems out of the importance of life at a court that clearly defines the capacities, motives and the limits that other people have. It is through a court process that the gestures, expressions, intentions and other behaviors of people are weighed to critically examine their meanings and to the extent that they contradict with respect to others, public decency.

The Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Emerging Financial Literature review

The Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Emerging Financial Markets - Literature review Example Regulations create and establish rules that should be observed and respected by individuals, organisations or firms that operate within a particular industry or business. Anyone or any entity that does not act in accordance to the preset rules is in direct contravention of the law and is thus subject to punishment by law. The punishment to be handed down can either be in terms of fines, imprisonment or repossession of the respective business. However, in the free market, the allocation of market resources is solely on the foundation of supply and demand forces, this happens in the absolute absence of any form of government intervention. The question now becomes whether free market approach or pro-regulation approach is the best avenue to take in the Australian economy. When it is all said and done, regulation is the appropriate approach to take. This paper will endeavour to illustrate, with logical backing, why this approach is the most suitable one in the Australian perspective. Thi s paper will evaluate twelve articles, which are either for or against, the introduction of legislation to the Australian environment. ... The work by MJR Gaffikin (2005) strongly illuminates on this situation. Gaffikin notes that change in legislation might result in either an increase or decrease in the total expenses, to be incurred by the affected firms. He additionally cites the example of waste management. He explores this issue and ends up asserting that if firms are made to account for their waste management systems, many firms will have to invest more in their waste disposal mechanisms. This leads to a substantial increase in their overall operations cost. Thus, judging on this fact, then the free market approach is favoured. However, Michael gives a biased assertion that regulation aids in the creation of wealth, this is the view adopted by economists. This literal work is prejudiced in a manner that it does not back its assertions with hard facts. Nonetheless, the author has targeted the whole subject of regulation. In a situation whereby this article is the only information available on the projected impact of legislation, then the measure to be adopted would be to campaign for free market approach. However, this article does not take into factor in the general environmental effect of careless disposing of waste. When objectively analysing how the market would behave in the absence of government regulation, it is akin to analysing how children in the kindergarten would behave in the absence of their teacher. When there is no body of authority, individuals tend to act erratically as no accountability is necessitated. The thought of economy behaving this way is alarming if not depressing. This situation will favour the greedy at the expense of the good and ethical people. This is the view

Firm's Stance on Women Driving Letter Assignment

Firm's Stance on Women Driving Letter - Assignment Example yota and Lexus) that many citizens of the kingdom would purchase and own our cars, as this would see our business flourish and profit margins soar even higher. Indeed this remains the desire and objective of any business in any part of the world, whether small scale or multinational as ours – to grow. But in as much as we want the very best for our company, we deeply appreciate the diversity of the human culture and the preferences that arise therein. We do not take part in any promotions that serve or disservice a particular belief or established system of doing things but are rather a humble business in competition with other similar enterprises that produce motor vehicle - with a solemn aim of bettering the lives of citizens across the world and taking motor vehicle comfort to a whole new extreme. Since the inception of the company, we have prided ourselves in equitable service for all customers who walk through our doors seeking to buy our products. We do not have any restrictions whatsoever on whom we conduct business dealings with as we serve minus any bias, regardless of religion, gender, and race and so on. We believe the question about whether women should drive or not is more of a matter of faith and religion. It is not in our power to question such things as religion. Those who subscribe to the belief that women must not drive for one reason or another are held in our highest esteems as are those who do not. True to our claim of unbiased respect for all beliefs and leanings, you are welcome to sometime conduct a survey of our key stakeholders and discover for yourselves a rich mix of people from both sides of the debate who more than anything simply wants to feed their respective

Write a critical comparison of two pieces of research Essay Example for Free

Write a critical comparison of two pieces of research Essay Rationale When choosing the two pieces of research to compare, I sought a topic that interested and was of relevance to me. According to Hammersley and Scarth (1993) the function of educational research is to inform policy-makers and practitioners and consequently to improve education (p.216). Subsequently the aim of this essay is not only to draw a critical comparison between the two pieces of research, but also to inform me, as a student teacher, on the findings of the role of teachers beliefs of gender in mathematics and so advise my future practice. In my last SE placement I found myself teaching a mixed year class of which boys made up two thirds of the pupils, this highlighted to me some of the gender issues that can manifest themselves in the primary classroom, I had previously not had experience of. The school had a policy on gender, which contained strategies for raising the achievement and interest of boys in lessons, particularly in literacy. When observing the male teacher conducting literacy and history lessons I found that many of the texts were tailored to the boys interests, such as information texts on robots or science fiction. In other classes I observed taught by female teachers, I did not see the use of any resources specifically targeted at boys. I found that because the class contained more boys than girls and had a male teacher, much of the talk and topics had a male theme. However, I did find that the boys were strongly motivated and that many of them responded in a very positive manner to a male role model, which can often be lacking at primary level. It was clear when I took over the teaching of the class I found it more difficult to develop a rapport with the boys than I had in my previous SE placement where the class teacher had been female. There has been research conducted on the effect of the gender of a teacher particularly in mathematics, but there are no conclusions to support my observations. Most teachers indicated that their gender does not necessarily influence their treatment of their own students, or the way that either male or female students related to them. There has been also been research conducted to examine the affect of teacher gender on pupils achievement in mathematics. Li (2001) quotes Sahas (1993) conclusions that whether a teacher is male or female does make a difference for student achievement, students with male teachers had better achievement in mathematics than those with female teachers (p.66). The experience within this class illustrated to me the distinction of boys and girls in primary education and how they respond to different stimuli, whether that be teachers, work, resources etc. As a mathematics specialist the fact that the topic investigates teachers gender-related beliefs within that subject is of particular interest to me. I have not had any experience of working with teachers who hold different beliefs about girls and boys achievement, but I have never held a discussion with a teacher about what they attribute their pupils success in mathematics to. The research papers provide an insight into teachers attributions and whether these are differentiated by gender. Any implications raised by the outcomes of this research will inform my future practice. Historical Context of Topic Over the last 25 years, there has been a variety of studies conducted to examine teachers beliefs about, or attributions of, causation of their students achievement successes and failures. Research conducted by Clark and Peterson (1986) found that a teachers causal attributions are important because perceptions of why his/her students succeed or fail in achievement situations has an impact on the teachers expectancies for students future achievement success. They also concluded that the sex of a student has not been shown to be a major factor affecting teachers attributions. However Fenema et al (1990) stated that a close reading of the literature shows that most studies dealing directly with teacher attributions have not included gender as a variable (p.57). There are some studies to show that researchers hold different beliefs about appropriate learning experiences for boys and girls. Stage et al (1985) reported that teachers do not have lower expectations for girls performance in mathematics than they do for boys performance, however teachers have been found to provide more encouragement for boys then for girls to learn mathematics. In 1998, the Scottish Executive for Education produced a Primary Schools Support Pack, which details gender issues in raising attainment. The document states that research evidence in attainment shows that in mathematics: boys have generally more positive, or sometimes more polarised, attitudes; boys have more confidence, are less dependent on teachers explanations, and devise their own methods and short cuts to solutions; girls tend to underestimate their abilities and are easily discouraged. Research carried out by Gorard et al (2001) on the patterns of differential attainment of boys and girls at school showed that in mathematics, girls have a small achievement gap over boys at level 2, but at level 3 to A levels, boys hold a small achievement gap over girls, which increases over time. Context According to Hammersley Scarth (1993) it is important to understand the context in which a report is produced (p.217). Fenema et al carried out their research in the United States of America in 1990. The subjects were 38 female 1st grade teachers from 24 elementary schools. Tiedemann carried out his research 10 years later in 2000 in a North German city. The subjects were 52 3rd and 4th grade teachers of which 5 were male. It is not clear from the research papers how they both chose their samples. However, it seems likely that both used a form of cluster sampling. Denscomb (1998) states that the logic behind cluster sampling is that, in reality it is possible to get a good sample by focussing on naturally occurring clusters of the particular area the researcher wishes to study and schools are a good example of a naturally occurring cluster. (p.14). Cluster sampling comes under the heading of probability sampling which is based on the idea that people or events that are chosen are done so because the researcher has an idea that these will be a representative cross-section of people in the population being studied. Denscomb (1998) adds that cluster sampling can save a great deal of time that would have been spent travelling to various research sites throughout the land. However, he states that one must remember the aim is to achieve a representative cluster and this could be obtained through random or stratified sampling (p.13). Fenema et al (1990) chose to study only female teachers; this may be because this is an accurate representation of the population, if there were little or no male 1st grade teachers. If they had particularly chosen to research female teachers attributions and beliefs this would have been stated somewhere in the research paper. Tiedemann however, had 5 male teachers within his sample of 52. It could be presumed that if a stratified approach was used, male teachers therefore, represent approximately 10% of teachers in the population he studied. Denscomb (1998) acknowledges that random sampling is likely to provide a representative cross-section of the whole, however he adds that stratified sampling has a significant advantage over random sampling in that the researcher can assert some control over the selection of the sample in order to assure that key people or factors are covered by it and are representative of how they are in the wider population (p.13). Purpose Fenema et al (1990) states that research had not investigated whether or not teachers hold different beliefs about girls, boys and mathematics. Therefore their study aimed to identify successful and unsuccessful mathematics students and the accuracy of their identification; teachers attributions of the causes of successes and failures of girls and boys and teachers beliefs about the characteristics of their best girl and boy mathematics students (p.56). They did not hypothesise about what they expected to find, but outlined a set of questions they wanted to answer. Tiedemann (2000) research title is very similar to that of Fenema et als (1990) and he quotes Fenema et als (1990) research in his review of the literature. His aim is not to re-test their findings, but to test for perceptual bias in teacher beliefs about gender in their teaching of mathematics at elementary schools (p.194). Tiedemann (2000) believes that it is still difficult to draw any conclusions with confidence. He is however working 10 years later and uses research conducted after Fenema et als (1990) to make a hypothesis of what he expects to find in relation to teachers attributions and beliefs. Bell (1999) identifies that it is useful to make statements about relations between variables as it provides a guide to the researcher as to how the original idea may be tested and they can attempt to find out whether it is so among the subjects in the sample (p.25). Cohen Manion (1994) agree that hypotheses and concepts play a crucial part in the scientific method, also known as positivism, defined as all genuine knowledge is based on sense experience and can only be advanced by means of observation or experiment. Positivism, however, has been challenged from many quarters (p.11), Cohen Manion (1994) quote Kierkegaards (1974) theory of existentialism saying that people should be freed from objectivity and having to discover general laws to explain human behaviour, but instead consider ones own relationship to the focus of the enquiry, which is the capacity for subjectivity (p.23). Tiedemann (2000) states an underlying assumption of his study, that there is no difference in gender achievements or teacher beliefs in mathematics. Cohen Manion (1994) criticise embarking on a study having pre-interpreted the world to be researched as the assumptions of the researcher can influence upon the results (p.25). Methods Both Fenema et al (1990) and Tiedemann (2000) used questionnaires to gather data. Fenema et al (1990) used two types of questionnaires, one being a structured individual interview the other a non-direct questionnaire, in their research. Denscomb (1998) states that a structured interview, which involves tight control over the format of the questions and answers, is similar to a questionnaire that is administered face to face. He adds that structured interviews lend themselves to the collection of quantitative data, which was the type of data Fenema et al (1990) did gather. There are issues to consider when deciding to conduct a questionnaire directly. Denscomb (1998) states that research shows when questioning people face-to-face informants respond differently depending on how they perceive the person asking the questions. In particular the informants answer may be tailored to match what they feel fits in with what the researcher expects from them or to what they perceive to be the researchers point of view (p.116). As already stated the researchers assumptions of the study can affect the outcome. For example in Fenema et als (1990) structured interview the teachers might not readily admit that the pupils lack of success is due to them not providing the support for the child even if it is their belief. In the case of Tiedemann (2000) his underlying assumption that there is no difference in gender achievements or teacher beliefs in mathematics could be perceived by the informant who modifies their response to this expectation. Cohen Manion (1994) cite Kitwoods (1977) critique of direct contact questionnaires; he states that there is a trade off between reliability and validity. If the researcher develops an atmosphere where the respondent feels at ease the more likely they are to disclose true information which is necessary to the validity, however reliability is enhanced by rationalisation, but when the interviewer becomes rational and calculating the less likely the situation will contain a human element and the more calculated the response is likely to be (p.282). Denscomb (1998) reflects on both types stating that questionnaires, which are conducted without direct contact, remove the impact of face-to-face interaction (p.88). Cohen Manion acknowledge the bias that can impact upon direct interaction, but it allows for greater depth than is the case with other methods of data collection (p.272). By Fenema et al (1990) using both types of questionnaires, they have experienced the advantages of both. Tiedemann (2000) used only the non-direct contact and therefore his study as Cohen Manion (1994) stated could lack greater depth and a human element. Fenema et al (1990) and Tiedemann (2000) employed similar styles of questionnaires to collect data about teachers attributions. Both used a non-direct questionnaire, which contained statements about the pupils that the teachers had to estimate on a scale. Fenema et als (1990) sex-role stereotype questionnaire was an adaptation of another researchers method of data collection. The 20 descriptors, concerning characteristics of the teachers best mathematics pupils, contained 2 opposing statements, the teachers responded from high agreement to the right phrase to high agreement with the left phrase. The structured interview and questionnaire used by Fenema et al (1990) and the questionnaire used by Tiedemann (2000) all contained closed questions where the answers are restricted to options supplied on the questionnaire. Denscomb (1998) acknowledges both the advantages and disadvantages of closed questions. He states that the structure of such a questionnaire provides the researcher with information which is of the same length and that can be easily compared, quantified and analysed. In the case of both research papers where the results were of a statistical nature, it would seem closed questions were the most suitable to use. Denscombe (1998) notes the disadvantages saying there is less scope for respondents to supply answers which reflect the exact facts of true feelings of a topic and as a result of this the respondents may become frustrated by not being able to express their views fully in a way that accounts for any sophistication, intricacy or even inconsistencies in their views (p.101). Fenema et als (1990) questionnaire overcomes some of the limitations of closed questions by allowing teachers to rank their agreement with the phrases from 1 to 5, enabling them to strongly agree with one phrase by marking 1 or 5, or to indicate a modification by marking 2, 3 or 4. Tiedemanns (2000) questionnaire similarly is structured to allow teachers to respond on a three-point scale of true, not true and partly true. However Bell (1999) cautions against the use of ambiguous words such a partly true, which may mean something different to each respondent (p.121). In Fenema et als (1990) attribution interview each teacher chose their 4 most successful mathematic students and 4 most un-successful students to attribute the cause of their success or failure. The paper does not state the criteria for how the students were classified as most or least successful, this information however is crucial to understand the teachers beliefs of what constitutes success or failure in mathematics, which is central to the research question. Tiedemann (2000) however states the criteria of a successful or failing mathematics student. He chose three bands of performance level that the students would fall into, 2 from the upper level, 2 from medial and 2 from the lower performance level. These bands were derived from performance grades attributed to the children in a similar way children in the UK are levelled from performance in QCA or SATs tests. One of Fenema et als (1990) objectives however was to discover how accurate the teachers were in selecting their most and least successful students. This was done by testing all 314 girls and 368 boys taught by the teachers and matching the results to the accuracy of the teachers choices. Therefore, it was important that the teachers chose the students as it gave a greater insight into whether they were able to identify their most and least successful students. However, it is important to note that there will always be the issue of whether the test results of the students are wholly valid. The test questions were read to the students by a trained tester. This immediately puts visual learners or children with poor memory at a disadvantage. According to Felder Silverman (2002) visual learners remember best what they see pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and demonstrations, verbal learners however get more out of words, spoken or written and therefore could have an advantage in this form of spoken test. Dyslexic students may also be put at a disadvantage from this style of test. These children, who are often able mathematicians, according to the British Dyslexia Association (2002) tend need more time when completing mathematical activities due to contributing factors such as poorer short-term memory and slower writing speeds. They can also have problems with auditory processing. Fenema et als (1990) test had a time limit, again putting some children at a disadvantage. Results Fenema et als (1990) and Tiedemanns (2000) results opposed each other in two particular aspects. Fenema et al (1990) concluded that in both the most and least able categories, teachers attributed girls success and failure to effort considerably more so than for boys. Tiedemann (2000) however found that teachers thought that girls profited less from additional effort than boys and had to exert relatively more effort to achieve the level of actual performance in mathematics. Under the category of ability, both research papers contrasted each other in their findings. Tiedemann (2000) states that teachers attributed failure in girls more to low ability, whereas Fenema et al (1990) found that boys success was attributed more to ability than girls success. When analysing the results obtained by both parties one must take into account the differences in their research methods and contexts. The researchers did not study children of the same age, in fact the children in Fenema et als (1990) research were 3 to 4 years younger than in Tiedemanns (2000). The research was conducted in differing countries and Fenema et als (1990) sample size (pupils) was double that of Tiedemanns (2000). Denscomb (1998) reflects on issues when using a sample of 300 or less (Tiedemanns (2000) being 312). He states that extra attention needs to be paid to the issue of how representative the sample is and caution is needed about the extent to which generalisations can be made on the basis of the research findings (p.24). Does this mean therefore that Tiedemanns results are less viable than Fenema et als (1990) due to his sample size? This would have to be investigated in relation to how representative his sample was. Fenema et al (1990) may have a larger sample but there is no information on how representative it is. Denscombe (1998) also states the smaller the sample the simpler the analysis should be, in the sense that the data should be subjected to fewer subdivisions (p.24). Tiedemann however divides his questionnaire in 6 categories containing 21 items; according to Denscomb (1998) this can dilute results (p.24). The issues of bias and validity in terms of Fenema et als (1990) interview should also be taken into account. As previously discussed these issues can affect results and more information on how the interview was conducted is needed before an analysis of its reliability can be conducted. To close, it is difficult to draw clear and unequivocal conclusions from both these sets of research, although Fenema et als (1990) study follows more of the advice for gaining reliable results, such as more than one method of data collection and a large enough sample size. Bell (1999) states that in the analysis, interpretation and presentation of data, care has to be taken not to claim more for results than is warranted. Li (2001) states that when studying all the literature, including both the research papers analysed here, on gender-related beliefs in teachers, the results are inconclusive. Bibliography Bell , J. (1999) Doing Your Research Project Bucks: OUP Cohen, L. Manion, L. (1994) Research Methods in Education London: Routledge Denscomb, M. (1998) The Good Research Guide Maidenhead: OUP Li, Q. (2001) Teachers beliefs and gender difference in mathematics: a review Educational Research Vol. 41 No. 1 pp. 63-76 The British Dyslexia Association (2002) Mathematics and Dyslexia http://www.bda-dyslexia.org.uk/main/information/education/e07maths 01/06/03 Tiedemann, J. (2000) Gender-Related Beliefs of Teachers in Elementary School Mathematics Educational Studies in Mathematics Vol. 43 pp. 191-207 Felder, R. M. Silverman, L. K. (2002) Learning Styles and Strategies http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ILSdir/styles.htm 01/06/03 Fenema, E. Peterson, P. L. Carpenter, T. P. Lubinski, C. A. (1990) Teachers Attributions and Beliefs About Girls, Boys and Mathematics Educational Studies in Mathematics Vol. 21 pp. 55-69 Gorard, S. Rees, G. Salisbury, J. (2001) Investigating the Patterns of Differential Attainment of Boys and Girls at School Oxford Review of Education, Vol. 27 No. 3 pp. 411-428 Hammersley, M. Scarth, J. (1993) Beware of wise men bearing gifts: a case study in the misuse of educational research in Gomm, R. Woods, P. (ed) Educational Research in Action London: Chapman Ltd

Advent of the democratic dispensation in south africa

Advent of the democratic dispensation in south africa 1.1 INTRODUCTION The advent of the democratic dispensation in South Africa has brought about significant changes in the political, social and economic spheres of the country. As a microcosm of society, the education sector too has been caught up in the ebb and flow of these democratic changes (Zatman, Florio and Sikorski, 1997:3). Consequently new educational laws and policies that are consistent with the new dispensation have been put in place. Although the transformation from apartheid education to Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) was necessitated by the democratic demands, its implementation is not a forgone conclusion. According to (ANC, 1995:8), â€Å"education and education systems are, above all, human and social institutions with all their capabilities and limitations†. Education institutions need to be managed. Unlike machines, they cannot be programmed for certain outcomes and then set to run by themselves. School principals together with other members of the School Management Teams (SMTs) as change agents and key personnel in schools, are faced with the challenge of managing these changes. Unfortunately many variables in the process of change are either unknown or cannot be controlled (Pudi, 2005:148). However, it is important to understand the roles that SMTs have to play for the effective management of the educational changes in schools. It is because of this that the roles and effective management of change in schools through SMTs is both important and necessary. The demands of a new education dispensation have in effect made necessary a paradigm shift in the management of schools. 1.1.1 A paradigm shift in the management of schools The introduction of OBE, the Integrated Quality Management Systems (IQMS), the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) and other educational changes in schools made imperative a modified or changed teaching approach from educators. More significantly effective implementation of OBE requires development of new management strategies and competencies from all the members of the SMTs. However the author is concerned about whether the current members of SMTs are sufficiently equipped with the necessary skills that will enable them to manage the current turbulences in schools. According to Zatman et al. (1997:3) it is convincing that school managers today are faced with a perplexing situation of trying to satisfy the needs and requirements of South Africa`s diverse population. Gultig and Butler (1999:7) stress that the management development programmes should no longer focus on school principals only, but on other middle managers as well. These authors maintain that under conditions of decentralization and a significant shift towards school-based management, the focus should primarily be on the broader and more inclusive understanding of education management development. School development programmes should not be seen as the preserve of the few seniors at the top of the school management structure. To meet the needs of the present democratic society, school principals and the rest of the management team are expected to be involved in self development programmes and develop other stakeholders in the school. The latter could be members of the community who should feature in school governance structures. According to Gultig and Butler (1999: vii) the paradigm shift in the management of schools has affected the way in which educators as classroom managers have to manage their classes. The dictates of OBE stresses team work and cross consultation with the learners. DoE (2002:08) points out that since OBE is focused on the outcomes, and that the process of obtaining these outcomes are in essence different, there have to be different ways of managing not only the outcomes but also the process of arriving at these outcomes. In the classroom, the OBE approach has led to a paradigm shift from teacher domination to active participation of learners as stakeholders in the teaching and learning process. School managers are required to ensure that educators implement the participatory mode of teaching effectively. Gultig and Butler (1999:29) stress that prior to the birth of the democratic society in South Africa, leadership and management practices in some institutions including schools, were mainly focused on how efficiently educators executed their prescribed duties without giving them opportunity for creativity and innovation. According to Bertram, Gultig and Ndlovu (1999:61) in the present education dispensation members of SMTs and educators are given freedom to participate in school management and education of the learners. Participation is promoted by the constitution of the Republic of South Africa and other relevant management and leadership models that are not only participatory but also promote democracy. According to Seller (2001:257) the present OBE approach â€Å"encourages an open school climate that promotes sharing of challenges, a cross-pollination of ideas and collaborative decision-making which is vital for high morale as well as increased efficiency and effectiveness†. This approach emphasizes alignment of school management with the democratic principles. The focus of this study is on investigating whether the members of SMTs in Mogodumo region in Limpopo province are capable of meeting the managerial expectations of the current democratic society that is brought by educational changes such the implementation of OBE in schools. In the present era, school managers are expected to become responsive to the changing needs that are imposed by the democratic changes and educational transformation. Legislations and school policies are pivotal in achieving this ideal. 1.1.2 The impact of the new policies on the roles of school managers The introduction of the present education policies and legislations demand members of SMTs to possess new managerial competencies that will enable them to implement these policies effectively (Gultig and Butler, 1999:64). The introduction of the current education Acts such as the South African Schools (Act 84 of 1996), with its emphasis on active participation of parents in school governance, has undoubtedly impacted on the roles of school managers. Section 9(3) and 9(4) of the Constitution (S.A Constitution, 1996a) stipulate that â€Å"no person (including learners) may be directly or indirectly discriminated against on the basis of race, gender, colour, ethnic or social origin.† This has in part led to the introduction of the current admission policy in South African schools. The spin-off to the present admission policy which encourages schools to open up the doors for learning to all without discrimination, has led to an increasingly diversity of learner population. This diversity can create racial and discipline-related problems that can challenge the managerial capabilities of the current school managers. Lemmer and Squelch (1993:27) note that school managers are faced with learners of different population groups and a multicultural ethos. These authors further point out that the introduction of this non discriminatory admission policy was an attempt to desegregate education so as to accommodate learners from all racial groups. However, the impact of this admission policy on the managerial capabilities of school managers cannot be left to chance. One of the other policies that impact on school managers in Mogodumo region in Limpopo province is the policy on corporal punishment. This is stated in section 10(1) of the South African Schools Act (SASA, 1996b). The Act stipulates that â€Å"no person may administer corporal punishment at a school to a learner.† This can be interpreted as upholding human dignity and respect to learners as human beings. Learners are therefore protected from being treated in a cruel, inhumane and degrading manner that may have been consistent with the previous dispensation and its relevant management practices. However, the impact of the abolition of corporal punishment has created serious disciplinary problems which demand school managers in Mogodumo region in Limpopo province to become more creative with regard to the application of appropriate alternative disciplinary measures for the maintenance of discipline and the effective teaching and learning in schools. The (DoE 2001:6) cites poor discipline as one of the manifestations of lack of transformation of management practices to conform to the changing times and environment. School management, from curriculum to non curricular activities is achieved as a participatory endeavour where all stakeholders are not only informed but also actively involved. 1.1.3 Participatory management approach School managers as leaders hold influential positions in schools. They are thus charged with the responsibility to manage educational changes in schools in the province. In their efforts to align changes with educational reforms, school managers today are expected to adopt leadership and management practices which are consistent with the democratic principles. Since this mode of management requires active participation of stakeholders in schools, it impacts on the managerial roles of school managers. Stakeholders such as parents were included in the governance of schools prior to the present democratic dispensation as stipulated in section 9 subsection 1 of South African Schools Act (SASA, 1996b). However they were often not provided opportunities to participate actively in executing the roles that they were supposed to play. In responding to the demands of the democratic society, this Act promotes parents not to be the rare species in schools anymore. Through the South African Schools Act (SASA, 1996b), parents are not only charged with the responsibility for the education of their children but are also mandated by law to participate actively in school governance. This implies that the current school managers need to play the role of building strong bases for parent participation in schools. In order to practice participatory management meaningfully school managers are expected to take parents on board on matters that demand their attention. Zatman et al. (1997:8) state that school managers as advocates of change are faced with a diversity of forces from within and outside the school arena. School managers are expected to involve the parents particularly members of the School Governing Body (SGB) in matters such drawing school budget and development of the mission statement of the schools. Apart from the involvement of parents, the scope for SMTs is further expanded by their involvement with learners and other external members of the public and clients who have a stake in the education 1.2 AWARENESS OF THE PROBLEM The post apartheid era in South Africa has dawned with tremendous changes that manifest themselves clearly within the education arena. Schools as components of the education system are faced with the challenge of implementing these changes in a meaningful way. As stated in section 1.1.1, educational changes such as the introduction of the OBE and NCS, IQMS and other changes that are brought by the changing needs of the current democratic society have been enacted. These changes require school managers to assume new managerial roles and responsibility. They are supposed to act as leaders and managers with the capabilities to manage the educational changes (Lombard, 2003:3). Unfortunately there is no policy document or norms and standards that precisely guide school managers on how to manage schools and these educational changes. The researcher realizes that there is not yet a policy that serves as a guide for school managers on the management of schools and the current changes that characterizes them (schools). The Education Policy Act (Act 27 of 1996) which focuses on the roles of educators has been drawn to serve as guidance regarding the responsibility of educators as classroom managers. Lombard (2003:3) argues that school managers of the pre-democratic era were mainly equipped with the skills to exercise control and fulfill administrative duties. This implies that their initial formal training that prepared them to become teachers did not equip them (school managers) with the knowledge and the capacity to execute managerial roles, particularly in change management. The training prepared them to manage classroom environments that prevailed during the pre-democratic era rather than to manage the changes experienced in contemporary schools. From these discussions, it is evident that there is little relevance between the skills that are possessed by the present school managers in Mogodumo region in Limpopo province and new managerial expectations that they are required to play in their attempts to execute their managerial roles in schools Based on these limitations, the researcher is not certain whether the current school managers in Mogodumo region in Limpopo province will be capable of managing and transforming schools in accordance with the demands of the democratic principles. It is these uncertainties that have led the researcher to undertake an investigation into the roles that members of SMTs in Mogodumo region in Limpopo province play in their efforts to manage educational changes. 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT When the problem under discussion is analysed and evaluated, the question arises on whether members of School Management Teams in Mogodumo region in Limpopo province are capable of playing their roles in managing the changes in schools. From this, the problem statement for this study can be stated as: The roles that school managers need to play in managing educational changes in schools in Mogodumo region in the Limpopo province. 1.4 AIM OF THE STUDY The aim of this study is to investigate the role that school managers play in managing the educational changes in the Mogodumo region in the Limpopo province. 1.5 MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY 1.5.1 Importance and necessity The study focuses primarily on the roles that school managers are supposed to play in the management of educational changes. Effective management of schools today requires school manager to have knowledge of the new managerial roles that are necessitated by the current educational changes. This study is thus deemed necessary for school personnel, and in particular members of SMTs. It is because this study intends to equip them with the knowledge of the actual roles that they (school managers) are expected to play in the transforming education system in South Africa. This knowledge is required by school managers if they are to manage changes in schools effectively. The kind of knowledge that this undertaking intends to expose is deemed important not only for the self improvement of school managers, but also for the development and the improvement of the whole school. Other members of staff will also benefit from school managers through school-based in-service training that focuses on change management. The present school managers are faced with the transforming education system in South Africa (DoE 1996:1). This study is therefore necessary for it does not only focus on the roles of school managers but also has a bearing on the exposition of changes and the new policies in education. Knowledge of these policies is deemed essential for the current school managers because it (knowledge) is regarded as one of the prerequisites for the successful execution of their new roles. As Morgan (1988:2) explains, school managers need to acquire the skills and knowledge that are necessary to deal with the consequences of transformation as it unfolds itself over time. 1.5.2 Contribution to the study It is expected that the empirical findings from the sampled school managers will contribute to the body of knowledge of change management and the managerial responsibilities of the contemporary school managers. It should be noted that though generalizations cannot be made from the empirical findings, the results of the interviews with some of the members of SMTs in Mogodumo region are hoped to put to light the actual roles that school managers play in their effort to manage educational transformation. It is hoped that this study will form a base for a better understanding of the way the current educational changes demand for the transformation of the managerial roles of school managers during this era. Morgan (1988: xii) emphasizes that dealing with the consequences of change requires managers to apply specific competencies that will enable them to identify â€Å"fracture lines†. 1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY On the basis of the nature of this study which requires the researcher to listen to the verbal description of the experiences of the respondents in their natural environment, the researcher has opted to conduct this study within the qualitative paradigm. This approach requires research techniques such as the interview that involve social interaction between the researcher and the respondents rather than instruments and statistical methods that are common for the quantitative research design (Hoberg, 1999:80). He further states that the qualitative research approach emphasizes the intervention of the researcher in the natural setting of the respondents and allows for participant observation as well as gathering first-hand information from the respondents. On this basis, the researcher visited the sampled schools in the Mogodumo region in Limpopo province. The intention was to understand the lived experiences regarding the roles and the strategies that members of the SMTs apply in their efforts to align the envisaged changes with the current school environments. 1.7 EXPLANATION OF CONCEPTS For the convenience of the reader and to avoid misunderstanding, certain concepts will be explained. The purpose of the explanation is to offer a clear understanding of what each concept means as it is used throughout this study. 1.7.1 Role Hawkins (1984: 725) defines ‘role as â€Å"a persons task or duty in an undertaking†. Rabothata (1982:3) emphasizes that ‘roles are â€Å"duties and responsibilities expected from a person occupying a certain position in an institution†. Roles can comprise the tasks ascribed to or expected of a person by virtue of the position held. However, the researcher is of the opinion that it should be kept in mind that roles are not limited to occupational status, nor does the fact that one is cast in the role of a manager during working hours prevent him/her from taking on other roles such as a husband, president, father et cetera, at some other time. Roles can also be defined as a set of expectations imposed on educators and school managers by the parents of learners, educationists and society in general (Pudi, 2005:147). From this perspective, it is evident that the roles of educators are based on the way the parents, the community or the society expect educators to behave. The word ‘role will be used in this study to refer to the tasks and responsibilities that the members of SMTs are expected to execute in their efforts to manage the changes in the schools. 1.7.2 School Managers The concept ‘school managers in this study does not only refer to the principals as the head of the school but also to other member of SMTs in schools. Besides the fact that principals are regarded as the highest-ranking professional educator, they do not manage the schools alone. Other personnel who manage and lead the school together with the principals such as the Deputy Principals and the Heads of Departments (HODs) are also regarded as managers. However it should be acknowledged that in some schools especially small schools, the senior teachers may also be co-opted into the management teams. The concepts ‘school managers and members of School Management Teams or SMTs will be used interchangeably in this study. 1.7.3 Competencies Van der Bank (1996:3) defines ‘competencies as the abilities to do something in a satisfactory or effective way. The concept ‘competencies is also defined as the ability to do something especially measured against a standard (Karpike and Murphy, 1996:33). 1.7.4 Paradigm A ‘paradigm is a model that forms a basis of something (Morgan 1988:129). According to Bertram et al. (1999: vii) the concept ‘paradigm refers to ‘a frame of reference. A paradigm is often based on a set of ideas or a particular way of making sense of the word and dealing with it. 1.8 PROGRAMME OF STUDY Chapter 1: Introductory orientation In this chapter, the background to the study, awareness of the problem, statement of the problem, aims of the study, motivation of the study, and description of the research methodology are discussed. Chapter 2: The nature of change and educational changes in schools This chapter contains literature study focusing on change. Particular focus is given the educational changes that impact on the roles of members of SMTs in the contemporary era. Chapter 3: Educational changes in schools: the role of school managers Emphasis is placed on the roles that members of the SMTs are supposed to play in their attempts to deal with the changes in schools. The impact of these changes on the school will be discussed. The suggested effective managerial competencies are also be highlighted. Chapter 4: Research design and methodology Planning of the research is undertaken. The research methodology together with data collection techniques used in this research is explained. The empirical research and methodology are outlined in this chapter. The research approach, the research methods and data collection techniques employed in this study are explained. Chapter 5: Empirical research and findings Presentation and analysis of the data collected is undertaken. The findings are discussed. Chapter 6: Summary, recommendations and conclusion The entire study is summarized. Conclusions regarding what school managers could do to rectify the situations in their schools are explained. Limitations of the study are explained. Recommendations for further research are stated. 1.9 SUMMARY This chapter provided the orientation to the study. The statement of the problem, aims and motivation for the study were outlined. In the following chapter the nature of change and educational changes in schools will be studied. CHAPTER 2 THE NATURE OF CHANGE AND EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 2.1 INTRODUCTION Change appears to be an ongoing natural process that tends to be inevitable in human life. Seller (2001:255) stresses that the call for change in all aspects of the educational delivery system has been continuous. It has been stated in section 1.1 that the education system is South Africa has been restructured to keep abreast with current societal demands. Among various educational changes, restructuring of schools by the inclusion and active involvement of groups of stakeholders such as the SMTs, the SGBs and the Representative Council of Learners (RCLs) can be cited as some of the common changes in schools. These groups of stakeholders were not given chance to play appropriate roles that they were supposed to play in most schools prior to the present democratic era in South Africa. Effective involvement of these stakeholders has a bearing on the organizational structure of schools as well. According to Bertram et al. (1999:vii) the democratization of the South African government encourages participation of stakeholders in the governance of the country. This demands a paradigm shift from autocratic and non-democratic leadership that was common during apartheid era. It suggests that instead schools should be run in a participatory and reflective manner. In addition the necessity for improvement of the quality of the learning has brought about a change in the content and the method of teaching and learning in schools. As pointed out in section 1.1.1, there has been a move to learner-centered OBE and NCS which promotes participation, setting measurable outcomes and continuous assessment of learners. Fullan (1985:3) emphasizes that â€Å"it is no exaggeration to say that dealing with change is endemic in the post-modern society†. Apart from these changes other innovations have been introduced such as the abolition of corporal of punishment, the changed policy regarding admissions, the norms and standards for school funding and many other changes that cannot be covered within the scope of this study. All these have demonstrated that change is an inevitable phenomenon particularly within the current democratic society. Based on the above discussion, it is evident that change is one of the important phenomena that impact on South African education today. Thus prior to investigating the roles that the managers of schools are supposed to play in aligning the changes with the present school environments, the researcher deemed it necessary to begin by defining change. A focus will also be on exposing some of the common educational changes that impact on the roles of school managers today. The intention is to provide a basis for understanding some of the educational changes that have brought about transformation of the managerial responsibilities of school managers in the present era. 2.2 CHANGE DEFINED Change can be defined from different perspectives. According to McLean (2005:16), change is defined as the alteration of individual behaviour or the substitution of one thing by another. On the other hand, Credora (2001:01) views change as the adoption of innovation where the ultimate goal is to improve the outcomes through alteration of practice. In addition to these definitions, one may point out that change can be seen as a modification of existing rules, regulations, values and belief systems. It may be regarded as a way of correcting behaviours or the way things are done. In short, change is deemed to be a movement away from the status quo. 2.3 THE NATURE OF CHANGE 2.3.1 Change as a process Fullan (1985:392) notes that change is not an event but a process. This statement is based on the fact that change takes place over a period of time. In the second of the eight basic lessons of the new paradigm of change Fullan (1992:21) further suggests that â€Å"change is a journey, not a blueprint†. It is non-linear and it is loaded with uncertainties. Like death and taxes, change is said to be an inevitable part of everyones life. In as much as one cannot run away from death, change cannot be avoided. Resistance to change is not a solution. Change will continue even if people resist it. Lombard (2003:28) provides a very useful analysis of the main themes on educational change and its management. He identified the following main themes concerning the nature of change as a process: †¢ Change is structural and systematic. Any real change will often affect the whole system in that change in one part of an institution has a ripple effect in other parts. †¢ Change is a process that occurs over time. Because any changes take place overtime, organizational change is not a discrete event, it is not sequential and it does not follow a straight line. †¢ Change is multi-dimensional. Change encompasses a number of different dimensions including resources, contents, process, evaluation, emotions, beliefs, values and principles. †¢ Change is viewed differently by various participants and therefore evokes a range of responses. All those involved in the change process will have their own perception about it. †¢ Change management requires investment in technological resources, human resources, and management of the process. The effective management of change requires creativity and the ability to identify and solve problems. Besides the different views on change, one could state that change is often regarded as a process. It is characterized by a series of interconnected events that may lead to alteration of values, beliefs or approaches over a period of time. During the process of change, the success of each stage of development is determined by the success of the previous stage (Lombard 2003:208). It should be noted that, while one may observe certain stages, change is not a linear process which follow clear cut stages. Complex changes may necessitate a number of stages for them to be sustained. Hence change depends on the extent of its complexity and other contextual factors. It affects people and their perceptions differently on a continuum from positive to negative. 2.3.2 The perceptions about change Some school personnel may hold a positive view of change while others may view it negatively. Garrett (1997:96) states that those who view it negatively often see it as a means of stepping away from ones firm ground (where one feels confident and is familiar with the rules and is also able to function comfortably), into swampy territory (where one feels uncomfortable and uncertain about roles and relationships and is also less confident about the skills and knowledge necessary to function effectively). According to Lombard (2003:6), when institutions such as schools are restructured, some of the members of the staff may worry about adjusting or losing their status or jobs. The recent changes such as redeployment and the introduction of OBE in South African schools have led to the reshaping of roles and the disruption of stability in schools. Feelings of uncertainty and discomfort have been stirred among some of the school personnel. Lombard (2003:6) further stresses that the senses of purpose of the majority of school managers and educators are often threatened by the changes. For instance the process of redeployment made some of the school managers to feel less confident about their skills. While some showed signs of resistance to these changes, others resorted to taking packages, early retirements and even resignation from the teaching field. It is as a result of this that there is a constant outflow of educators to other economic sectors (Tshabalala, 2006:12). McLean (2005:20) points out that, change may be perceived negatively as a force that upsets individuals` comfort zone and constantly challenges them to think outside their boxes and behave in new ways that may be alien to them. For school personnel who hold a negative view, the changes that occur in schools often stir fear in them. Changes challenge their competence, power and authority. Th

Stanley Kubricks The Shining Essay examples -- Kubrick Shining Horror

Stanley Kubrick's The Shining (1980) initially received quite a bit of negative criticism. The film irritated many Stephen King fans (and King himself) because it differed so greatly from the novel. The Shining also disappointed many filmgoers who expected a conventional slasher film. After all, Kubrick said it would be "the scariest horror movie of all time."1 Kubrick's films, however, never fully conform to their respective genres; they transcend generic expectations. In the same way that 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) is not just another outer-space sci-fi flick, The Shining is not a typical horror movie. The monsters in The Shining originate not from dark wooded areas, but from the recesses of the mysterious human mind-in broad daylight, at that. Perhaps Kubrick said The Shining is "the scariest horror movie of all time" not because it offers a bit of suspense, blood, and gore, but because it shines a light on the inherently evil nature of humankind on psychological and sociol ogical levels. After Kubrick bought the rights to Stephen King's 1977 novel The Shining and hired novelist Diane Johnson to help write the screenplay, both Johnson and Kubrick read Freud's essay on "The Uncanny" and Bruno Bettelheim's book about fairy tales, The Uses of Enchantment.2 Kubrick obviously wanted to surpass the intellectual depth of contemporary horror films such as The Exorcist and Omen. He said he was attracted to Stephen King's novel because "there's something inherently wrong with the human personality. There's an evil side to it. One of the things that horror stories can do is to show us the archetypes of the unconscious: we can see the dark side without having to confront it directly." 2 In order to transfer his vision of the "dark side" to the screen, however, Kubrick had to substantially alter the story in King's novel. With the help of Johnson, Kubrick threw out most of King's ectoplasmic interventions-many ghosts, the demonic elevator, the deadly drainpipe, the swarming wasps, and the sinister hedge animals that come to life. Apparently Kubrick could not find special effects to animate the shrubbery in a satisfactory manner. 2 Kubrick also dispensed with virtually all of Jack Torrance's troubled history and his gradual descent into insanity. Jessie Horsting, author of Stephen King at the Movies, said, " I loathed The Shining when it fir... ...e film with a shot evocative of Michael Snow's Wavelength1 which moves down a corridor and into a photograph, after which a dissolve provides still closer scrutiny of the photograph. The photograph shows a grinning Jack at the Overlook Hotel July 4th Ball in 1921. The date links America's independence with senseless violence, and the image of Jack suggests that his sanity now exists only in the past, while his "dark side" remains frozen in the snow-covered maze outside. In addition, as the film ends, Kubrick uses the sound of applause to blend the contemporary movie audience with the 1920s audience. The 1920s audience then begins to chatter as filmgoers would when exiting the theater. The contemporary audience members, therefore, usually overlook this soundtrack-just as they overlook Native American genocide and other instances of humanity's violence against humanity. Thus, even through its final credit sequence, The Shining attempts to disrupt the complacency and security of the audience-to hold up a mirror to viewers to show them that they were and are the guests at the Overlook Ball. For this reason, perhaps, Kubrick said The Shining is "the scariest horror movie of all time."